- 1. Chapter 1
Introduction and Basic Concepts
Thermodynamics I
1
- 2. Objectives
• Identify the unique vocabulary associated with
thermodynamics through the precise definition of
basic concepts to form a sound foundation for the
development of the principles of thermodynamics.
• Review the metric SI and the English unit systems.
• Explain the basic concepts of thermodynamics such
as system, state, state
postulate, equilibrium, process, and cycle.
• Review concepts of temperature, temperature
scales, pressure, and absolute and gage pressure.
2
- 3. THERMODYNAMICS AND ENERGY
• Thermodynamics: The science of
energy.
• Energy: The ability to cause changes.
• The name thermodynamics stems from
the Greek words therme (heat) and
dynamis (power).
• Conservation of energy principle:
During an interaction, energy can change
from one form to another but the total
amount of energy remains constant.
• Energy cannot be created or destroyed.
• The first law of thermodynamics: An
expression of the conservation of energy
principle.
• The first law asserts that energy is a
thermodynamic property.
Energy cannot be created
or destroyed; it can only
change forms (the first law).
3
- 4. • The second law of thermodynamics:
It asserts that energy has quality as
well as quantity, and actual processes
occur in the direction of decreasing
quality of energy.
• Classical thermodynamics: A
macroscopic approach to the study of
thermodynamics that does not require
a knowledge of the behavior of
individual particles.
Conservation of energy
principle for the human body.
• It provides a direct and easy way to the
solution of engineering problems and it
is used in this text.
• Statistical thermodynamics: A
microscopic approach, based on the
behavior of individual particles.
Heat flows in the direction of
decreasing temperature.
4
- 5. IMPORTANCE OF DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
• Any physical quantity can be characterized by dimensions.
• The magnitudes assigned to the dimensions are called units.
• Some basic dimensions such as mass m, length L, time t, and
temperature T are selected as primary or fundamental
dimensions, while others such as velocity V, energy E, and volume V
are expressed in terms of the primary dimensions and are called
secondary dimensions, or derived dimensions.
• Unit systems:
Metric (SI) system:
English system:
5
- 6. W weight
m mass
g gravitational
acceleration
A body weighing
60 kgf on earth
will weigh only 10
kgf on the moon.
The relative magnitudes of the force
units newton (N), kilogram-force
(kgf), and pound-force (lbf).
The weight of a unit
mass at sea level.
6
- 7. Dimensional homogeneity
All equations must be dimensionally homogeneous.
To be dimensionally homogeneous, all the terms in an equation must have the same
unit.
Unity Conversion Ratios
All nonprimary units (secondary units) can be formed by combinations of primary
units.
Force units, for example, can be expressed as
They can also be expressed more conveniently as unity conversion ratios as
Unity conversion ratios are identically equal to 1 and are unitless, and thus
such ratios (or their inverses) can be inserted conveniently into any calculation
to properly convert units.
7
- 8. Example
Discuss Example 1-3 in class:
Using unity conversion ratios, show that 1.00 lbm weighs 1.00 lbf on earth.
8
- 9. CLOSED SYSTEMS AND CONTROL VOLUMES
• System: A quantity of matter or a region
in space chosen for study.
• Surroundings: The mass or region
outside the system
• Boundary: The real or imaginary surface
that separates the system from its
surroundings.
• The boundary of a system can be fixed or
movable.
• Systems may be considered to be closed
or open.
• Closed system
(Control mass):
A fixed amount
of mass, and no
mass can cross
its boundary.
9
- 10. • Open system (control volume): A properly
selected region in space.
• It usually encloses a device that involves
mass flow such as a compressor, turbine, or
nozzle.
• Both mass and energy can cross the
boundary of a control volume.
• Control surface: The boundaries of a control
volume. It can be real or imaginary.
An open system (a
control volume) with one
inlet and one exit.
10
- 11. PROPERTIES
OF A SYSTEM
• Property: Any characteristic of a
system.
• Some familiar properties are
pressure P, temperature T, volume
V, and mass m.
• Properties are considered to be
either intensive or extensive.
• Intensive properties: Those that
are independent of the mass of a
system, such as
temperature, pressure, and density.
• Extensive properties: Those
whose values depend on the size—
or extent—of the system.
Criterion to differentiate intensive
• Specific properties: Extensive
and extensive properties.
properties per unit mass.
11
- 12. Continuum
•
•
•
•
•
Matter is made up of atoms that are
widely spaced in the gas phase. Yet
it is very convenient to disregard the
atomic nature of a substance and
view it as a
continuous, homogeneous matter
with no holes, that is, a continuum.
The continuum idealization allows us
to treat properties as point functions
and to assume the properties vary
continually in space with no jump
discontinuities.
This idealization is valid as long as
the size of the system we deal with
is large relative to the space
between the molecules.
This is the case in practically all
problems.
In this text we will limit our
consideration to substances that can
be modeled as a continuum.
Despite the large gaps between
molecules, a substance can be treated as
a continuum because of the very large
number of molecules even in an
extremely small volume.
12
- 13. DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Density
Specific volume
Specific gravity: The ratio
of the density of a
substance to the density of
some standard substance
at a specified temperature
(usually water at 4°C).
Specific weight: The
weight of a unit volume
of a substance.
Density is
mass per unit
volume;
specific volume
is volume per
unit mass.
13
- 14. STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM
•
•
•
•
•
Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states.
Equilibrium: A state of balance.
In an equilibrium state there are no unbalanced potentials (or driving forces)
within the system.
Thermal equilibrium: If the temperature is the same throughout the entire
system.
Mechanical equilibrium: If there is no change in pressure at any point of the
system with time.
•
Phase equilibrium: If a system
involves two phases and when the
mass of each phase reaches an
equilibrium level and stays there.
•
Chemical equilibrium: If the
chemical composition of a system
does not change with time, that
is, no chemical reactions occur.
A closed system reaching thermal
equilibrium.
14
- 15. The State Postulate
• The number of properties
required to fix the state of a
system is given by the state
postulate:
The state of a simple
compressible system is
completely specified by
two
independent, intensive
properties.
• Simple compressible
system: If a system involves
no
electrical, magnetic, gravitati
onal, motion, and surface
tension effects.
A system at two different states.
The state of nitrogen is fixed by two
independent, intensive properties.
15
- 16. PROCESSES AND CYCLES
Process: Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to
another.
Path: The series of states through which a system passes during a process.
To describe a process completely, one should specify the initial and final
states, as well as the path it follows, and the interactions with the
surroundings.
Quasistatic or quasi-equilibrium process: When a process proceeds in such
a manner that the system remains infinitesimally close to an equilibrium state
at all times.
16
- 17. •
•
•
•
•
•
•
Process diagrams plotted by
employing thermodynamic properties
as coordinates are very useful in
visualizing the processes.
Some common properties that are
used as coordinates are temperature
T, pressure P, and volume V (or
specific volume v).
The prefix iso- is often used to
designate a process for which a
particular property remains constant.
Isothermal process: A process
during which the temperature T
remains constant.
Isobaric process: A process during
which the pressure P remains
constant.
Isochoric process: A process during
which the specific volume v remains
constant.
Cycle: A process during which the
initial and final states are identical.
The P-V diagram of a compression
process.
17
- 18. The Steady-Flow Process
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•
•
•
The term steady implies no
change with time. The
opposite of steady is
unsteady, or transient.
A large number of
engineering devices operate
for long periods of time
under the same
conditions, and they are
classified as steady-flow
devices.
Steady-flow process: A
process during which a fluid
flows through a control
volume steadily.
Steady-flow conditions can
be closely approximated by
devices that are intended for
continuous operation such
as
turbines, pumps, boilers, co
ndensers, and heat
exchangers or power plants
During a steadyflow process, fluid
properties within
the control
volume may
change with
position but not
with time.
Under steady-flow conditions, the mass
and energy contents of a control volume
remain constant.
18
- 19. TEMPERATURE AND THE ZEROTH LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS
• The zeroth law of thermodynamics: If two bodies are in thermal
equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with
each other.
• By replacing the third body with a thermometer, the zeroth law can
be restated as two bodies are in thermal equilibrium if both have the
same temperature reading even if they are not in contact.
Two bodies reaching
thermal equilibrium
after being brought
into contact in an
isolated enclosure.
19
- 20. Temperature Scales
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•
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All temperature scales are based on some easily
reproducible states such as the freezing and boiling
points of water: the ice point and the steam point.
Ice point: A mixture of ice and water that is in equilibrium
with air saturated with vapor at 1 atm pressure (0°C or
32°F).
Steam point: A mixture of liquid water and water vapor
(with no air) in equilibrium at 1 atm pressure (100°C or
212°F).
Celsius and Kelvin scales: in SI unit system
Fahrenheit and Rankine scales: in English unit system
• Celsius and Fahrenheit:
relative units
• Kelvin and Rankine:
absolute units
Comparison of
temperature scales.
Comparison of magnitudes of various
temperature units.
20
- 21. Example
Discuss Example 1-4 in class:
During a heating process, the temperature of a system rises by 10 C.
Express this rise in temperature in K, F, and R.
21
- 22. PRESSURE
68 kg
136 kg
Pressure: A normal force exerted
by a fluid per unit area
Afeet=300cm2
1 psi = 1 lbf/in2 = 6894.8 Pa
0.23 kgf/cm2
0.46 kgf/cm2
P=68/300=0.23 kgf/cm2
The normal stress (or “pressure”) on the
feet of a chubby person is much greater
than on the feet of a slim person.
Some
basic
pressure
gages.
22
- 23. • Absolute pressure: The actual pressure at a given position. It is
measured relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure).
• Gage pressure: The difference between the absolute pressure and
the local atmospheric pressure. Most pressure-measuring devices are
calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere, and so they indicate gage
pressure.
• Vacuum pressures: Pressures below atmospheric pressure.
Throughout
this text, the
pressure P
will denote
absolute
pressure
unless
specified
otherwise.
23
- 24. Example
Discuss Example 1-5 in class:
A vacuum gage connected to a chamber reads 5.8 psi at a location where
the atmospheric pressure is 14.5 psi. Determine the absolute pressure in the
chamber.
24
- 25. Variation of Pressure with Depth
When the variation of density
with elevation is known
Free-body diagram of a rectangular
fluid element in equilibrium.
If ρ = const.
The pressure of a fluid at rest
increases with depth (as a result of added weight).
25
- 26. In a room filled with
a gas, the variation
of pressure with
height is negligible.
Pressure in a liquid
at rest increases
linearly with
distance from the
free surface.
The pressure is the
same at all points on
a horizontal plane in
a given fluid
regardless of
geometry, provided
that the points are
interconnected by
the same fluid.
26
- 27. Pascal’s law: The pressure applied to a confined fluid increases the
pressure throughout by the same amount.
in other words
A change in pressure at any point in an enclosed fluid at rest is
transmitted undiminished to all points in the fluid
The area ratio A2/A1 is
called the ideal mechanical
advantage of the hydraulic
lift.
Lifting of a large weight by a
small force by the application
of Pascal’s law.
27
- 28. The Manometer
It is commonly used to measure small and
moderate pressure differences. A manometer
contains one or more fluids such as
mercury, water, alcohol, or oil.
Measuring the
pressure drop across
a flow section or a flow
device by a differential
manometer.
The basic
manometer.
In stacked-up fluid layers, the
pressure change across a fluid layer
of density and height h is gh.
28
- 29. Example
Discuss Example 1-6 in class:
A manometer is used to measure the pressure in a tank. The fluid used
has a specific gravity of 0.85, and the manometer column height is 55
cm, as shown in the figure. If the local atmospheric pressure is 96 kPa,
determine the absolute pressure within the tank.
29
- 30. THE BAROMETER AND ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
•
Atmospheric pressure is measured by a device called a barometer; thus, the
atmospheric pressure is often referred to as the barometric pressure.
•
A frequently used pressure unit is the standard atmosphere, which is defined as
the pressure produced by a column of mercury 760 mm in height at 0°C (Hg =
13,595 kg/m3) under standard gravitational acceleration (g = 9.807 m/s2).
The basic barometer.
The length or the
cross-sectional area
of the tube has no
effect on the height
of the fluid column of
a
barometer, provided
that the tube
diameter is large
enough to avoid
surface tension
(capillary) effects.
30
- 31. Example
Discuss Example 1-7 in class:
31
- 32. Example
Discuss Example 1-9 in class:
32
- 33. Summary
•
•
Thermodynamics and energy
Importance of dimensions and units
Some SI and English units, Dimensional
homogeneity, Unity conversion ratios
•
•
•
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Systems and control volumes
Properties of a system
Density and specific gravity
State and equilibrium
The state postulate
•
Processes and cycles
The steady-flow process
•
Temperature and the zeroth law of thermodynamics
Temperature scales
•
Pressure
Variation of pressure with depth
•
The manometer and the atmospheric pressure
33
- 34. Homework #1
Due: Thursday, February 6
Problems: 1.7E
1.43C
1.51E
1.58E
1.80
1.85
1.96
Fluid Mechanics
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